![]() ![]() CKD may favor the growth of uremic toxin-producing bacteria. Uremic syndrome affects the gastrointestinal tract with manifestations including anorexia, nausea, ulcers, malnutrition, and protein-energy wasting. Although the main cause of intestinal dysbiosis in CKD patients remains unknown, there is evidence that a low-fiber, low-protein diet, medications and treatments, and reduced renal function alter the biochemical environment of the gut and modify the gut microbiota (GM), or the ecosystem of micro-organisms inhabiting the intestine. CKD patients have been reported to display reduced gut motility, increased intestinal permeability, bacterial overgrowth, bacterial translocation, and inflammation of intestinal origin, which are consistent with dysbiosis. Increased blood concentrations of uremic solutes promote uremic syndrome, which comprises many organ disorders and cellular dysfunctions. ![]() In CKD, the decrease in renal function leads to the accumulation of various compounds in the blood, known as uremic solutes. Researchers investigating the gut–kidney axis should pay attention to the selection of the animal model (disease induction method, species) and the setting of the experimental design (control group, sterilization method, individually ventilated cages) that have been shown to influence gut microbiota.Ĭhronic kidney disease (CKD) is defined as abnormalities in kidney structure or function that last over 3 months and have health implications. CKD animal models replicate metabolic but not compositional changes in the gut microbiota. Animal models of CKD also reproduce altered intestinal barrier function, as well as the resulting leaky gut syndrome and bacterial translocation. Murine models of CKD, but not dog, manifest slowed gut transit, similarly to patient. To study the gut–kidney axis in vivo, animal models should ideally reproduce the disorders affecting both the host and the gut microbiota. Altered gut microbiota can display metabolic changes and become harmful to the host. ![]() The changes that accompany renal failure are likely to influence the gut microbiota, or the ecosystem of micro-organisms resident in the intestine. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is an incurable disease in which renal function gradually declines, resulting in no noticeable symptoms during the early stages and a life-threatening disorder in the latest stage. ![]()
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